https://i.pinimg.com/originals/2a/44/e1/2a44e1d108f51ac7fe44c3d698a2284d.jpg

2,000,000 years  old Mammoth found in Covasna unique in Europe  

A NEW SPECIES OF DINOSAUR WAS DISCOVERED IN OUR COUNTRY

 The dinosaur species was discovered by Romanian researchers at the University of Bucharest, in collaboration with Columbia University in New York. He had claws like scythes, which he used to eviscerate animals that were falling prey to him.

The discovered specimen measures only 2.1 meters long. Paleontologists have deduced that he had short legs and very strong muscles. they named the dinosaur the Bondoc dragon.

The Bondoc dragon, the new species of dinosaur discovered after the analysis of a skeleton taken from a complex in Sebes, Alba County, was one of the most terrible predators of its time, says one of the authors of the study.

The very strong muscles of the hind limbs and the excellent claws to grasp and tear the food make the researchers feel better. declares the new dinosaur, "baptized" Romanian Bondoc dragon, the most terrible land predator of 70 million years ago. by Mick Ellison (American Museum of Natural History)

Evz.ro published yesterday the article announcing the discovery . We return today with an interview with Zoltan Csiki, from the Paleontology Laboratory of the University of Bucharest, co-author of the study announcing the discovery, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, a journal. weekly? of the United States Academy of Sciences.

PHOTO:  - A - dorsal vertebra  of the  Bondoc dinosaur ; B - the claws with which Balaur Bondoc grabs and tears the prey. Source: study "An aberrant island-dwelling theropod dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous of Romania"

evz.ro: Where and when was the fossilized skeleton discovered? Were other fossils found in that area, we're talking about a complex?

 Exclusive! Sensational discoveries: or new? dinosaur species and egg nests? of prehistoric birds 

 The paleontologist from Cluj, Matei Vremir, made some sensational discoveries in the Sebe, Alba area. Matei Vremir declared, on Monday, for AGERPRES, that? Among the findings of the research team are? a new species? of herbivorous dinosaur and, more importantly, the eggs and nest of some prehistoric birds that lived behind. 68 million years ago.

; BELOW - images of the fossilized skeleton, offered by the Transylvanian Museum Society and published on eme.ro

 
'Has research continued in the case of a sensational discovery represented by egg nests? and bones of primitive birds (enantiornithes), covered by a flood of 68 million years ago. Is this the first proof? c? this group of primitive birds nested en masse. on the banks of watercourses, similar to current species (flamingos, etc.). Will the discovery be presented? public at the International Congress of Paleontology in Las Vegas (USA) ', said Matei Vremir.

The paleontologist from Cluj added that another? important discovery? do I represent her? leftovers from 'a new? herbivorous dinosaur species, yet? under preparation and research '.

A small skeleton of a multituberculate mammal has also been discovered that has been partially preserved in the filling of a den.

In addition, remains of the largest pterosaur (flying reptile) with wing bones have been discovered. having dimensions 25% larger than the largest discovered until? now in the United States (Quatzatcoatlus northropi). Matei Vremir says that? the wingspan of the Sebe specimen? exceeded 13 m, with 2-3 m above the calculated limit? for the ability to fly. Matei Vremir explain? how the size of the wings raises the question of the possible existence of a gigantic species that had lost its ability to fly and lived in isolation on the lush island? Ha? Eg, f? R? to have enemies to measure? and with food? in abundance, as in a hypermarket without? flat, similar to the giant flying birds of Madagascar (Aepyornis) '.

The paleontologist from Cluj specified that? 'the dozens of recent discoveries are still? in processing '? ic? the results of the research will probably be made public over the next year. 'However, the results until now indicate? the fact that? in the Sebe? area live a series of common species and in the Ha? eg Basin, but also forms that still they weren't discovered there, and that's not so much because? geographical isolation, especially the different fossilization conditions and the temporal differences between different sites and geological layers', added Matei Vremir.

From the international expedition? who made the recent discoveries in Sebe? researchers from England (Gareth Dyke -Southampton and Darren Neish - Porthsmouth), USA (Steve Brusatte - New York) and Romania (Zoltan Csiki - Bucharest, Radu Totoianu - Sebe ?, Matei Vremir - Cluj) are part of it. .

Is Matei Vremir the one who discovered, back? one year old, the skeleton of the 'Bondoc Dragon' - the most complete carnivorous dinosaur skeleton in Europe. Fossil discovered? the Sebe? It is 70 million years old and belongs to a new species of theropod. According to experts, the "Bondoc Dragon" is a relative. close, but 'aberrant', of the well-known Velociraptor discovered in the Cretaceous of Mongolia, which seam? n? rather? with a hybrid between an oversized turkey and a pit bull dog.

Did Matei Vremir also discover a vertebra last year? of the largest flying dinosaur (pterosaur) in the world. AGERPRES

 CLUJ - THE FIRST CITY IN ROMANIA TO HAVE A DINOSAUR MUSEUM

Cluj could be the first city in Romania to have a dinosaur museum. According to some university sources, quoted in the regional press, would this museum be patronized by Babes-Bolyai University, through the Faculty of Biology? Geology, where ichthyosaurs from the Jurassic of Holzmaden (Germany) and some samples of dinosaur fauna from the Hateg Basin and Transylvania are currently exposed:? Struthiosaurus Transylvanicus ?,? Magyarosaurus Dacus ?,? Zalmoxes Robustus? ,? Zalmoxes Shqiperorum? and dinosaur eggs, very well preserved.

The pieces of resistance of this museum would be represented by these "native" dinosaurs. One of them would be the "Salaj Dinosaur", with its scientific name "Zamolxis shqiperorum", a dwarf herbivorous dinosaur that lived about 65-70 million years ago in Transylvania. Bones of this dinosaur were discovered at Somes Odorhei, in the "Jibou Formation". First dated in 1905.

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CzonWqKG8js&feature=related

 Aricesti, Prahova. Tomb of a community leader of 1,70 meters high, over 4,500 years old. (move it to Cucuteni)covered with red ocre paint. In position of arians scheletons.

R1b Lineage

  Text and pictures at:  

http://www.friedpost.com/sciencetech/scientists-reveal-the-first-modern-europeans-face-373.html 

 The founder of the R1b lineage lived over 35,000 years ago prior to the end of the last Ice Age in southern Europe and Iberia. Members of Haplogroup R1b are believed to be descendants of Cro-Magnon people, the first modern humans to enter Europe. Cro-Magnons lived from about 35,000 to 10,000 years ago in the Upper Paleolithic period of the Pleistocene. When the ice sheets retracted at the end of the ice age, descendants of the R1b lineage migrated throughout western Europe.
The territory of Romania has been continuously inhabited by people since prehistory.

They left behind a legacy that we are just now starting to find and interpret.  A skull found in Peştera cu Oase (The Cave with Bones), near Anina, in 2004-5 bears features of both modern humans and Neanderthals.

According to a paper by Erik Trinkaus and others, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences in January 2007, this finding suggests that the two groups interbred thousands of years ago. Radiocarbon dating indicates that the skull is between 35,000 and 40,000 years old, making it the oldest modern human fossil ever found in Europe.

A second expedition by Erik Trinkaus and Ricardo Rodrigo, discovered further fragments (for example, a skull dated ~36,000, nicknamed "Vasile").  Two human fossil remains, found in the Muierii (Peştera Muierilor) and the Cioclovina caves, in Romania have been radiocarbon dated, using the technique of the accelerator mass spectrometry to the age of ~ 30,000 years BP.

These are among the most ancient dated human fossil remains from Romania, possibly belonging to the upper Paleolithic, the Aurignacian period (see Human fossil bones from the Muierii Cave and the Cioclovina Cave, Romania.)

 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Romania#Prehistory 

Pictures of Vasile and text at :http://www.friedpost.com/sciencetech/scientists-reveal-the-first-modern-europeans-face-373.html

    Scientists reconstructed the facial features of the first European, using a fragment of skull and a jawbone found in Romania  

. Although it doesn’t look at all like the nowadays Europeans the reconstructed man or woman lived in the forests of the Carpathian Mountains.  

 The bones were found in Pestera cu Oase (”The Bones Cave”) in 2002 (the lower jawbone) and in 2003 (the fragments of the skull). The radiocarbon analysis showed that the bones are somewhere between 34,000 and 36,000 years old, times when both the Neanderthal man and Homo sapiens inhabited the  lands.      

           Photos: The Bones Cave 1 and 2.

 The sex of the person’s whose bones were found in Romania could not be determined. One of the things that  raised controversies was the color of the skin, that was claimed to be darker than modern-day Europeans, due to the known facts that Homo sapiens migrated to Europe from Africa via the Middle East. Anyway the BBC 2 series The Incredible Human Journey which documents human origins and evolution was a major factor in the reconstruction of the first modern European, as they want to show us the way that migratory routes helped us populate Earth. 

Human fossils set European record http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory_of_Southeastern_Europe

By Jonathan Amos BBC News Online science staff Fossils picked up in a Romanian bear cave are the oldest specimens yet found of modern humans in Europe, scientists say. The bones are the oldest found in Europe One of the items - a male, adult jawbone - has been dated to be between 34,000 and 36,000 years old. The other pieces, which include the facial bone of an adolescent, are still being tested but are thought to be of a similar age. This puts the fossils - from three different individuals - in a period in history when modern humans are believed to have shared the continent with Neanderthals, their now extinct hominid cousins. Indeed, the researchers reporting the discoveries go so far as to suggest the fossils show some degree of hybridization - they are possibly the result of interbreeding between modern humans and Neanderthals, they argue. This is a position that drives a heated debate among scientists, many of whom doubt there was much mixing of the species. These researchers point to DNA studies that indicate Neanderthals contributed little or nothing to the genes of humans living today. Human development The new finds, made in the Carpathian Mountains, are sure to prompt further argument. They are detailed by Professor Erik Trinkaus and colleagues in two journals: the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences and the Journal of Human Evolution. The team says the fossils, while undeniably modern (Homo Sapiens), display some features that are very primitive in nature, such as large molars. Trinkaus is an expert on Neanderthal biology and evolution (Image by Joe Angeles/WUSTL) "Both the lower jawbone and the upper jaw of the face have the same pattern in the cheek teeth - the wisdom teeth in particular are simply huge. They are bigger than just about anything else we have from the last 200,000 years," Professor Trinkaus told BBC News Online. "The best explanation I can put on it is that when modern humans spread out of Africa, they interbred with local populations of archaic humans, including the Neanderthals," said the Mary Tileston Hemenway Professor of Anthropology at Washington University in St Louis, US. "It shows us that the earliest 'modern Europeans' were considerably less modern than we normally consider them to be, and that significant human evolution in details of anatomy has taken place since they became established across Eurasia." 'Wonderful mosaic' The fossils were originally discovered in February 2002 in Pestera cu Oase - translated as the "Cave With Bones" - by three Romanian cavers. It is not known how they got into the cave, but Professor Trinkaus says one possibility is that early humans used the site as a mortuary for the ritual disposal of human bodies. The currently most popular model for the emergence of modern humans ties their origin to Africa within the last 200,000 years. The facial fossil comes from an adolescent male This theory argues that a wave of Homo Sapiens then swept out across the world to replace all other human-like species, including Neanderthals. Some molecular studies have seemed to refute any possibility that mixing took place - they indicate that our last common ancestor existed before Neanderthals themselves arose. "The problem with this whole debate is that we have so few specimens in Europe - it's hard to make a hard and fast case," commented Professor Clive Gamble, from the UK's Center of the Archaeology of Human Origins. "The genetic studies are quite convincing but we need more information and that makes these new fossils very interesting. I'm sure that what we deal with eventually is going to be a more wonderful mosaic." In June this year, another group of scientists reported the discovery of the oldest ever modern human remains at Herto in Ethiopia. The skulls were said to be about 160,000 years old. The previous oldest modern human remains in Europe are dated to about 30,000 years ago.

   An early modern human from the Peştera cu Oase, Romania

What the Modern Human Was Doing 30,000 Years Ago?

 

Pestera Coliboaia - Coliboaia Cave Rock Art 

 http://www.dr.dk/Nyheder/Udland/2010/06/14/093359.htm

 Central Europe's oldest cave paintings discovered at Coliboaia Cave, Romania 

 

 http://www.donsmaps.com/romaniancaveart.html

This photograph from the site: http://www.dr.dk/Nyheder/Udland/2010/06/14/093359.htm

IASI INVEST - business quotidian online

The oldest cave paintings in Central Europe, estimated at between 35 000- 23 000  BP, have been discovered by a team of Romanian speleologists at the Coliboaia Cave, Campani, Bihor County, western Romania, and certified by French paleontologists. The chairman of the Federation of Romanian Speleologists says it is the first time that Paleolithic paintings so old have been certified in Central Europe. Judging by their style, they could be rated as Gravettian or Aurignacian.

 

These paintings are older that The Horse, from the Cuciulat Cave, 13,000 BCE (Salaj County, Romania) unearthed on the right bank of the River Somes.Those who discovered the paintings nearly three months ago are speleologists Tudor Rus (the Spedova Stei Cave Exploration Club), Mihai Besesek, Valentin Alexandru Radu and Roxana Laura Toiciu (the Seowest of Arad Cave Exploration Association), Marius Kenesz (Speo Club of Zarand), who explored the Dealul Secaturii - Coliboaia Cave in the Sighistel Valley, near the village of Campani.

 

After the discovery, protection was secured for the paintings while French specialists, who arrived in Romania on 16th May 2010, conducted further research for certification.

 

The Coliboaia Cave is crossed by an underground river that branches off in several sumps, which makes cave exploration even more difficult. The paintings were conserved in a high gallery. Other paintings were probably destroyed by water.

 

The black cave paintings depict animals, including a bison, a horse and possibly a feline; one or two bear heads and two rhinoceros. Some engravings were also discovered at the same place, where the floor is scattered with bear bones.

 

During their stay in the cave, the bears are said to have scratched the cave walls. 

 

A French team composed of speleologists Marcel Meyssonnier and Valerie Plichon; Michel Philippe, a paleontologist specializing in cave bears; historian Francoise Prudhomme and cave art specialists Jean Clottes and Bernard Gely have attested to the authenticity of the paintings. Clottes is also an honorary General Heritage Conservationist and cave art expert for ICOMOS and UNESCO.

 

The cave has been placed under the conservation care of the Federation of Romanian Speleologists and the Apuseni Natural Park Administration, under the archeological authority of the Cris Lands Museum of Oradea and the Bihor County Council.

 

 

 

http://www.donsmaps.com/romaniancaveart.html

 Rhinoceros Head.

Photo: Andrei Posmosanu © Romanian Federation of Speleology - FRS

Source: http://www.ebihoreanul.ro/stiri/ultima-or-31-1-19/cele-mai-vechi-picturi-paleolitice-din-europa-centrala-descoperite-intr-o-pestera-din-bihor-88112.html

 

 

 

Bison. This artwork appears to make use of the relief of the cave wall to enhance the shape and impact of the image.

http://www.donsmaps.com/romaniancaveart.html

 

Photo: http://webtv.realitatea.net/actual/picturi-rupestre-vechi-de-35-000-de-ani-descoperite-in-romania

 

Amulet-Pendant from Branzeni

 

The Aurignacian culture was located in Europe and south west Asia, and
flourished between 32000 BCE and 21000 BCE. It may have been contemporary with the Périgordian (a contested grouping of the earlier Châtelperronian and later Gravettian cultures.

 

Incrusted with a two-line and a three-line incising, this is the amulet-pendant  from Branzeni, (Moldova), on the Prut River, approx. 32,000 BCE made out of mammoth tusk. 

Found in a carstic groto, Branzeni, Moldova,
Number 27 is the first number inscribed by Homo Sapiens on Columbia from Branzeni--38.000 BP--, the oldest known document to date, that deals with Primordial language.       text and pictures at: http://www.iatp.md/dava/Sirius_11/sirius_11

 

          http://www.monument.md/en/monumente_arheologie/  

 Another Face of the Modern Human

                             26,000 year old face carved in mammoth ivory

 from Dolni Vestonice, (Chechoslovakia) site of many fine paleolithic finds. Face of the person which could have made and wear a piece similar to the Amulet from Mitoc.  Picture at:  http://mathildasanthropologyblog.wordpress.com/2008/09/24/

  The Amulet from Mitoc, 26,000  BCE from ARCHEOLOGIA, nr. 353, fevrier 1999, France, p. 63. One of these artifacts, that for some reasons is the most representative proof for this  recording, lay in the bowels of the Earth for approximately 26.000 years until 1981 when archeologist

Vasile Chirica brought it to light.  This artifact, called  the "Amulet from Mitoc" --Dealul Galben,  Prut, (now Moldova) bearing the name of the place where it was discovered-- has been researched ever since. Its own discoverer, Vasile Chirica, in his work "The Gravettian in the East of the Romanian Carpatians" (Iasi, 1989) described it as an anthropomorphism.The amulet from Mitoc, near Botosani, NE Romania. Faces A and B. It is, at first, the "mathematical" little medallion from Mitoc-Dealul Galben, near Botosani, NE of Romania (26.000 years BC); these are, at second, drawn "by a geometrical writing" madonnas from Vinca, Rast and Turdas (5.000 years BC) and, way not, the perfect rhombus-triangle connections from Carbuna, Basarabia (Cucuteni civilization, 3.600 years BC). the excellent (drawn with meanders and angles) Mezin birdies from Pripiaty river, in Ukraine (18.000 years B.C.); it's the drawn rhombus, the meanders and encyclopaedia from Cuina Turcului, on Danube, near Caras-Severin, W Romania (11.000 years BC).
Some years later, Andrei Vartic, in his book "A question with regard to Paleoinformatique" surmised that "The amulet from Mitoc is possibly the first calculator of the Homo Sapiens". They would thus be the world's earliest known form of counting.

  

l

 Amulet from Cosauti, (Moldova) approx. 16,000 BC

COSAUTI, Archaeological site near Cosauti vilage on the Nistru river, North of Moldova. Was found by archaeologist I. Borziac. East Gravettian stratums in which appeared Human and Zoomorphic figurines, incrusted Bones with mathematical and geometrical paintings". On a stone amulet was incrusted a real mathematical encyclopedia of the Paleolithic man. (I. Borziac, Inceputurile istorie Moldovei, Stiinta 1996; A. Vartic, Intrebarea cu privire la paleoinformatica)
DAVA INTERNATIONAL 2001

Cosauti, rep. of Moldova, 18. 000 a. C.

     Venus from Cosauti

    V. Chirica,The Gravettian in the East of the Romanian Carpathians, Iassy, 1989 (for Amulet)

I. Borziac, Inceputurile istoriei Moldovei , Stiinta, 1996, p. 84-94 ( for Venus)

 An entire collection of art objects dating from the Paleolithic era was discovered at the Cosauti station (Judets of Soroca), among which it is worth to mention an anthropomorphic statuette, a fragment of hand-made zoomorphic statuette and various ivory and bone objects decorated by incision, dating back to approximately 22 000 years BC. http://www.monument.md/en/monumente_arheologie/

The Real Eve: Modern Man's Journey Out of Africa - Google Books Result by Stephen Oppenheimer

2.5. Revenirea la arealul carpato-dunarean si nistrean  Text at : http://old.ournet.md/~portac/2_4/2_4.html Sa revenim acum la consideratiile noastre privind algoritmul in baza cifrei 9 aparut pe unele piese de arta mobiliara de la Brinzeni (Rep. Moldova, pe Racovat, in bazinul Prutului mijlociu), Mitoc (Moldova, Romania de Est, pe Prutul mijlociu), Tibrinu (Dobrogea, Romania de Sud, linga lacul Tibrinu), Cosauti (Soroca, Rep. Moldova,   pe malul Nistrului mijlociu) si Cuina Turcului (Oltenia, Romania de Vest, pe Dunare, la Portile de Fier). Fig. 24. "Columbia" de la Brinzeni, rep. Moldova   Fig. 26. Piesa de arta mobiliara de la Tinbrinu, Dobrogea, Romania de Sud.  Fig. 25. Amuleta de la Mitoc, fata A, Moldova, Romania de Est.  Fig. 27. Amuleta cu siruri numerice de la Cosauti, rep. Moldova (vechea Clepidava)  Fig. 28. Cuina Turcului, Oltenia, Romania de Vest, fata A      Picture at: http://library.thinkquest.org/C006353/cuina_turcului.html Pe " Columbia" de la Brinzeni [aprox. 32.000 BC] grupul 7&9 apare in numarul  63 care reprezinta numarul de puncte de pe partea exterioara a aripioarelor "Columbiei", dar multiplii lui 7 si 9 se pot citi atent si pe liniile punctiforme de pe partea laterala a piesei. Fig. 29. Linii punctiforme pe partea laterala a "Columbiei" de la Brinzeni Exceptional a rezolvat problema legaturii 3, 7, 9 si "savantul" paleolitic de la Mitoc [aprox. 26.000 BC] care a incrustat superba tabla matematica in baza multiplilor lui 2 si 3 [Fig. 25] . Se poate, insa, observa ca grupul din trei linii din centrul fetei A, unite unghiular intr-un punct central (care imparte suprafata rotunda a piesei in 3 parti), au alipite in partea stinga sus si stinga jos cite 2 linioare. Or, 3 + 2 + 2 = 7. Acest 7 formidabil cuprinde grupul de 9 linii din dreapta si se leaga magistral cu structura primordiala a tri-line-ului. La fel de spectaculos si de subtil cele 9 liniute de pe piesa mobiliara de la Tibrinu (din partea de jos, dar si din zig-zaguri) ne permit si citirea lui 7 (vezi numararea din dreapta la stinga, cind dupa a 7-ea liniuta apare un fel de alipire speciala a celorlate 2), dar 7 se poate citi si in alte "speculatii" matematice ale desenului (de pilda cele 4 linii ale celor doua fasii vericale + cele 3 linioare din interior, de sus).    La patria "port-ac-ului" preocuparile matematico-geometrice ale omului paleolitic apar intr-o arie atit de larga, pe artefacte atit de deosebite, in formule atit de variate incit au permis unui grup international de cercetartori {Borziac, Noiret, Otte, Piese de arta paleolitica si de podoaba de la statiunea paleolitica cu mai multe niveluri de locuire Cosauti din zona Nistrului Mijlociu, Revista arheologica, Nr. 2, Chisinau,1998} sa puna in evidenta la Cosauti un adevarat centru spiritual din gravetianul central european. O cercetare arheologica fundamentala, multidisciplinara, de proportii academice a statiunii si a imprejurimilor (vezi si articolul  nostru " Pelerinaj in paleolitic" in Dava International, nr. 4, 2001), se cere realizata aici cit mai curind pentru a se deschide noi luminisuri de cercetare in multe alte statiuni paleolitice din Europa si Asia. Desigur, amuleta de la Cosauti, incrustata cu linioare punctate, este capul acestor preocupari si la ea vom reveni mai jos. Aratam aici prezenta impunatoare a grupului de 7&9 in partea de sus a formidabilei piese mobiliare cu o "desectie" a omului (toate desenele cosautiene sint retiparite dupa lucrarea fundamentala {Borziac, Noiret, Otte, op. cit., 1998}) Fig. 30. Piesa de arta mobiliara cu o pictura simbolica, matematica, geometrica si, posibil, anatomica realizata pe un os, de la Cosauti, rep. Moldova.Sub semnul de tip M, intretaiat de 2 linii paralele trase oblic, se citeste o stranie structura de 9 linioare trase si ele oblic spre o linie centrala si 7 linioare sub acea linie. Citirea atenta a "capului" figurii de sub acest semn arata ca sus, in interior, avem un tri-line care are in dreapta o structura de 7 linii si in stinga una de 9. Fig. 31. Placheta ornamentata pe ambele suprafete, Cosauti, rep. Moldova, fata A si B Pe alta piesa (o  placheta ornamentata pe ambele suprafete plate din niv. 7) citim in dreapta 7 linioare dupa care urmeaza o structura din 2 linii, care are incrustata in interior un grup de linii indiscifrabil. Cele 7 linioare din dreapta + cele 2 ale structurii centrale ne dau in suma 9. Interesant este ca cele 5 linii din stinga (si sirul cifrei 5 este la fel de impresionat cercetat de omul paleolitic devine 7 cu adaugarea celor 2 linii a structurii centrale. Pe partea opusa a plachetei observam iarasi uimitoare grupuri de 3, 7 si 9.  O linie orizontala centrala imparte placheta in 2 parti. In stinga ea este intretaiata de 2 grupuri a cite 3 linioare, dar de fapt avem un grup de 7 linioare datorita unei alipiri subtile in partea de jos a inca unei linii. Ca acest lucru nu este intimplator ni-o demonstreaza chiar structura centrala, de alaturi. Sub linie se pot citi alte 6 linii care devin 7 datorita "secantei" care uneste linia 5 cu 6. Mai la dreapta mai avem un rup de 2 linioare. 7 + 2 = 9. Structura incizata deasupra liniei centrale, foarte deteriorata, sugereaza, insa, acelasi aramjament matematic ingenios.    Fig. 32. Harpon paleolitic de la Cosauti, incrustat cu incizii matematice?.         Si pe vestitul harpon de la Cosauti se pot urmari atent aceleasi grupuri, lucru de care ne-am ocupat in "Intrebarea cu privire la paleoinformatica".          Photo: Cosauti archeological site:  http://www.iatp.md/dava/Dava4/vartic_4/vartic_4a/vartic_4b/vartic_4b.html       Photo: Nistru river at Cosauti, Soroca, Moldova at: http://www.corina-travel.com/index.php?lang=ro&go=showresort&resort=205&country=1&type=    O cercetare atenta demonstreaza ca grupul lui 7 si 9 este prezent si  la Cuina Turcului (vezi grupurile de 2 linioare de sub cele 9 linii centrale a fetei B), iar vechimea acestei piese (11.000 BC) aduce simbolul in mezolitic, inclusiv in cel anatolian, sumerian si egyptean. Dezvoltarea de mai departe a civilizatiei "geometrice" {A. Vartic, Istoria s-a inceput la Mitoc, Dava International, nr. 1, 2000; A. Vartic, O istorie geometrica a lui Homo Sapiens, Basarabia, 2000} a grupurilor umane de la Schela Cladovei, Romania, si Lepensky Vir, Yugoslavia, nu mai apare acum ca un import anatolian, ci ca un "focar" de civilizatie europeana {V. Boroneant, Dunarea in zona Portilor de Fier, focar de dinamica istorica in civilizatia antica, Dava International, nr. 4, 2001} http://www.monument.md/en/monumente_arheologie/ Fig. 33. Piesa de arta mobiliara cu structura de 7&9 linii de la Cuina Turcului, fata B.   Oricum, aparitia impresionantului material simbolic, geometric si matematic in statiunile din Moravia si din nordul Moldovei clasice (estul Romaniei, vestul Ucrainei, nordul rep. Moldova) nu mai pare o enigma atit de naucitoare. Fig. 39. Piatra de riu cu siruri de incrustari de 7 & 9, descoperita de paleontologul T. Obada linga Koroliova, Ucraina de Apus, in apele Tisei. T. Obada sustine ca aceasta piatra a fost sculptata antropomorfic. Pe fata antropomorfica se afla o incrustare cu 7 lini si alta, mai putin evidenta, de 7+7, iar pe cea opusa una de 9 linii. Pe fata care arata grosimea pietrei se pot distinge clar cel putin trei tri-lineuri. Mai mult decit atit: uriasul complex musterian din zona grotei Buzdujeni, rep. Moldova (din imediata apropiere a statiunilor paleolitice de la Ripiceni-Izvor, Mitoc, Cotu-Miculinti, din dreapa Prutului si a celor de Brinzeni, Trinca, Duruitoarea, Gordinesti etc, din stinga Prutului)  si cel de la Molodova, statiune care se afla pe riul Nistru, la vre-o 70 km mai sus de Cosauti, nu mai poate fi ignorat. Ca a fost sau nu a fost o transmitere constienta de informatie, vitala pentru fiintarea omului, din musterian in aurignacian, in opinia noastra, nici macar nu e o tema de discutie de senzatie. Tocmai de aceea sint necesare cercetari fundamentale anume aici, unde straturile musteriene si aurignaciene sint descoperite in relatii de interferenta (ca la Brinzeni si Molodova)  si unde rostul fundamental de fiintare al omului, acel to be care il exclude pe not to be, iese senzational din ascunderea lui milenara. Citirea acestui mesaj tulburator a devenit, brusc, posibila dupa descoperirea de catre arheologul Ilie Borziac a port-ac-ului paleolitic de la Cosauti, incrustat cu superba structura de 7&9, structura care incarca omul din paleoliticul superior cu cunostinte profunde despre sine si despre univers, dar mai ales despre locul sau, al omului sapiens, in acest paradoxal si magnific univers.    GROTA DE LA BRANZENI
http://www.monument.md/monumente_arheologie/grote/320/#

Archaeological site near Cosauti vilage on the Nistru river, North of Moldova, Was found by archaeologist I. Borziac. East Gravettian stratums in which appeared Human and Zoomorphic figurines, incrusted Bones with mathematical and geometrical paintings". On a stone amulet was incrusted a real mathematical encyclopedia of the Paleolithic man. (I. Borziac, Inceputurile istorie Moldovei, Stiinta 1996; A. Vartic, Intrebarea cu privire la paleoinformatica)  DAVA INTERNATIONAL 2001  

Partial view from the Cuina Turcului natural shelter, before the archaeological excavations began.

Text at : http://cimec.ro/Arheologie/livingpast/nr1/boroneant/clisurian/fig7.htm

 Zei?a de la Cuina Turcului ?i Armonia de Aur

http://strasihastrii.blogspot.com/2009/08/84-zeita-de-la-cuina-turcului-si.html

1) La prima întâlnire cu desenul am exclamat: ? o misterioas? oper? de art? în care geometria vrea s? ridice spre puncte înalte frumosul?, apoi am privit minunea de sute de ori, în multe feluri din partea mea ?i la diferite sc?ri de propor?ie ale operei transpus? pe suport plan. Este genul de imagine despre care nu po?i spune nimic de r?u,mai mult privind-o prime?ti satisfac?ia c? privind te îmbog??e?ti ?i,în plus,are magnet: de ce prive?ti tot ai mai privi.
?S-ar putea ca acest construct romanellian de la Portile de Fier sa reprezinte simbolic misterul nasterii omului. Sau relatia omului cu Divinitatea Suprema. Sau puterea omului de a calcula posibilitatile de fiintare din probabilitatile de fiintare? ? Andrei Vartic.
?Printre cele mai frumoase piese se numara o falanga de cal salbatic care are ca ornament o silueta umana schematizata.? ? la adresa
http://www.enciclopedia-dacica.ro/webring/luana/ist/cladova/cladova.html
Care-i secretul acestei lucr?ri f?cut? de om, mai ales c? vechimea ei a crescut de la 11000 de ani la 26000 ? 32000 ani ( probabil au fost aplicate metode de ultim? or? pentru determinarea vârstei unor asemenea vestigii sau procedându-se prin compara?ie ?).
Am imprimat desenele pe cartoane ?i , f?r? explica?ii le-am ar?tat unui creator de modele feminine: ? Da, un model de rochie mai pu?in obi?nuit, dar pentru o tân?r? zei?? ? este posibil ! ?

2) Despre felul cum au fost alese fe?ele spre a fi incizate
Alegerea a fost ideal?: concavitate ? convexitate ?i inten?ia mesajului.

3) Despre semnele incizate pe fa?a A.
Evident ? sunt elemente geometrice. S? not?m: în acele vremuri artistul ce a incizat osul st?pânea bine urm?toarele no?iuni: vertical?, orizontal?, segment,unghi,romb,triunghi de Aur (exagerare,coinciden?? sau adev?r !), labirint,ax? de simetrie, contur,elemente de perspectiv?, punerea în eviden?? a fundalului,rela?ia element (segment) -- num?r, s.a.

Am m?rit desenul prin copie la scar?: erorile de m?surare a unghiurilor ( evident prin tehnologia oferit? de un calculator) sunt mici ( sub un grad).
Triunghiurile notate sunt Triunghiuri de Aur ( I I ) unghiul AKB are m?sura de 108 grade ?i , evident, ABK are m?sura de 36 grade. Din punctul de vedere al rela?iilor dintre elementele unei figuri geometrice aceste triunghiuri sunt cele mai ? corect? desenate; am ales ca vertical? axa de simetrie a figurinei ?i orizontala fa?? de care raport?m m?surile unghiurilor este tot a figurinei. Laturile triunghiurilor ABK se prezint? astfel: doar latura de mijloc BK are o eroare de o jum?tate de grad ( aceste propozi?ii sunt afirma?ii ?i nu imputa?ii; genialul artist nu a lucrat cu laserul !). Laturile AK au erori prin adaos de 2-3 grade . Nici un triunghi ABK nu are incizat? baza pentru c? , din cele ce se pot observa, laturile ce compun unghiul de 108 grade comunic? , bazele acestor triunghiuri sunt l?sate pentru imagina?ie, ?i este realizat? linia continu? a unui labirint care înconjoar? piesa independent? ? rombul ? care la rândul ei ne prezint? , într-o perspectiv? halucinant? a simplit??ii ? Oceanul Primordial ? (C? am venit ca apa si-o s? plec?m ca vântul - OMAR KHAYYAM ) ? simbol pentru locul din care toate
s-au n?scut ( ac?iunea vine de Sus ? cele cinci V-uri).
Autorul percepea D2-ul: sus - jos, stânga - dreapta,cuno?tea simetria plan? geometric? ? axa de simetrie a figurii, ne îndeamn? s? gândim simetria lumilor , iar grani?a dintre ele are dualitate ( diagonala mic? a rombului) - Na?terea înseamn? primul act care une?te prin ac?iune.
Autorul percepe D3-ul: pe lâng? cele dou? axe din plan al?tur? pe a treia: fa?? - spate, centrul sistemului ( Buricul Lumii) ? centrul rombului.
Sim?ul spa?ialit??ii se deduce ?i din aceea c? nu las? desenul pur ?i simplu pe suprafa?a de lucru: prin apele din romb asigur? perspectiv?, iar prin acele linioare pereche ? creeaz? fundalul. Prin u?oara curbur? pe care o are osul imit? arhitectura corpului uman, curburile te îndeamn? s? identifici ondula?iile trupului feminin ? statueta este un tors.

 Text and Picture:

http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/archeo/paleofig/pal01eng.shtml

     Map of Europe in the epoch of rupestre painting -- the glacier also holds in its "claws" Central Europe. England was still part of the continent, and the passing to Minor Asia from the Carpatho-Danubian space did not cause problems to the first Homo Sapiens. The great glacier held a big part of the planetary amount of water, so the passing from the Danube to Minor Asia was no problem until recently. The maps we present here, all of them confirmed archeologically, demonstrate that the Carpatho-Danubian and the Sumerian spaces were the harbors of the civilized world, the centers which produced spiritual and material values later on taken over by the rest of the world. 

 As today, so yesterday. We live where the living is good, most of us ­ by the water! Oceanfront. Seaside; lake shores; along riverbanks.
The great bulk of our former grandeur as a trading, culture-making species prior to the last true global flood in ca. 12,500 BP, must now be buried under at least 300 to 400 feet of water worldwide, or otherwise washed away. No wonder Graham Hancock gone scuba-diving. Someday perhaps the entire archeological profession will follow him. Or will we have to wait until the next Ice lifts the curtain?
The dramatic scale and speed of the transformations of the landscape of our prehistory are almost inconceivable to us. Before the onset of the Würm, “Thick forest mantled a Europe only a short time before covered with treeless tundra” (Fagan) while the Sahara was “semi-forested grassland, abounding with streams and lakes and rivers, teeming with life” (DeMeo ­ a status that particular region did not acquire again for 90,000 years). Vast tracts of earth were covered by water and then, shockingly, stripped bare, exposed. France was joined to its future nemesis, England; Gibraltar was separated from Africa by a five-mile-wide oceanic river; great plains stretched miles off the eastern coast of Spain into a smaller sea; Corsica and Sardinia, one big island, almost touched the bloated boot of Italy on the north; Sicily, joined to Italy, stretched to the south a mere 30 or so miles from Libya; the Black Sea was a deep inland freshwater lake; the Red Sea, a long thin lake at the end of which the Arabian peninsula was joined to the horn of Africa; the Persian Gulf, an Edenic plain filled with game...back and forth from inundation to exposure.
The shifts in whole regional climates throughout the last Ice Age “from freezing cold to warm was abrupt in every cycle, perhaps lasting only centuries” (Ryan & Pitman; my italics). Sheets of ice one, two miles thick, cliffs of ice fronting the Thames (London Town: did Virginia Woolf know this ice age too when she wrote Orlando?), stretched across Hamburg-to-be and eastward to the Pacific, along the way touching down toward the northern shores of the Black and Caspian Seas, while mountains such as the Jura were completely buried in Alpine glacial ice. All these began to melt.
The Bosphorus Flume
Vulcanism, on a scale we have difficulty imagining, marked the entire epoch (Dickson), an unremembered echo behind our casual enchantment with the tantalizing paradox of “fire and ice.” When the last really great meltdown began 20,000 years ago, immense glaciers covered all the high mountains of Europe, Asia, North and South America. This was the titanic, the last and biggest “thaw” of the great Ice Age. And it went in spasms, advancing, retreating and advancing. A writhing Gaian fury beyond our reckoning. “Ages” ago.
In the end, the great inventive Upper Paleolithic cultures of Cro-Magnon (Homo sapiens sapiens ­ which inflated moniker I will not use again here), the Aurignacian, Gravettian, Sousterian, and Magdalenian, whose art has never been surpassed, vanished (but at not without some memorable traces). 

Last Ice Age Europe (18,000 years ago)

At the end of the last ice age, around 14,500 years ago, the world began to slowly warm. Between 5000 and 2500 B.C., the world reached its warmest in the millennium following the ice age—during this period, the average global temperature was about four to six degrees Fahrenheit higher than it is today. Never again would the world be as warm as it was in these two centuries. Here's the exciting thing: corresponding the steady warming of the earth was the development of agriculture, the single most important technological invention of human beings. Corresponding the warmest period since the last ice age were tremendous innovations in human habitation. It was in this period that human beings all over the world began to live in a more sedentary manner—at the beginning of this period, human beings begin to live in substantially sized villages; towards the end of this period, the very first human cities appear.

Last Glacial Maximum: refuge and re-colonization

About 25,000 years ago began the most recent very cold period (the Last Glacial Maximum, LGM), rendering much of Europe uninhabitable. According to the classical model much of northern and central Europe was vacated and people took refuge in climactic sanctuaries (or refugia) as follows:

• Northern Iberia and Southwest France, together making up the "Franco-Cantabrian" refugium.
• The Balkans.
• Ukraine and more generally the northern coast of the Black Sea.^[73]
• Italy^[75]

This event decreased the overall genetic diversity in Europe, a "result of drift, consistent with an inferred population bottleneck during the Last Glacial Maximum".^[76] As the glaciers receded from about 16,000-13,000 years ago, Europe began to be slowly repopulated by populations within the above-mentioned refugia, leaving traceable genetic signatures.^[77]

In particular, some Y haplogroup I clades appear to have diverged from their parental haplogroups sometime during, or shortly after, the LGM.^[23] Haplogroup I2 is prevalent in the western Balkans, as well as the rest of southeastern and central-eastern Europe in more moderate frequencies. Its frequency drops rapidly in central Europe, suggesting that the survivors bearing I2 lineages expanded predominantly through south-eastern and central-eastern Europe.^[78]

In addition, Cinnioglu sees evidence for the existence of an Anatolian refuge, which also harboured Hg R1b1b2.^[79] Today, R1b dominates the y chromosome landscape of western Europe and the British Isles, suggesting that there could have been large populations composition changes based on migrations after the LGM.

Semino, Passarino and Pericic place the origins of haplogroup R1a within the Ukrainian ice-age refuge. Its current distribution throughout eastern Europe and parts of Scandinavia are thus, in part, reflective of a re-peopling of Europe from the southern Russian/Ukrainian steppes during the Late Glacial Maximum.^[80][81][82]

From an mtDNA perspective, Richards et al. found that the majority of mtDNA diversity in Europe is accounted for by post-glacial re-expansions during the late upper Palaeolithic/ Mesolithic. "The regional analyses lend some support to the suggestion that much of western and central Europe was repopulated largely from the southwest when the climate improved. The lineages involved include much of the most common haplogroup, H, as well as much of K, T, W, and X." The study could not elucidate clearly whether there were new migrations of mtDNA lineages from the near east during this period; however, a significant input was deemed unlikely.^[61] The alternative model of the more refugees was discussed by Bilton et al.^[83]

Neolithic migrations

As mentioned above, one major cline in genetic variation which has long been recognized in Europe seems to show important dispersals from the direction of the Middle East. This has often been linked to the spread of farming technology during the Neolithic, which has been argued to be one of the most important periods in determining modern Europen genetic diversity.

The duration of the Neolithic varied from place to place, starting with the introduction of farming and ending with the introduction of bronze implements. In SE Europe it was approximately 7000-3000 BC while in NW Europe 4500-1700 BC. During this era, the so-called Neolithic revolution led to drastic economic as well as socio-cultural changes in Europe, and this is also thought to have had a major impact upon Europe's genetic diversity, especially concerning genetic lineages entering Europe from the Middle East into the Balkans. There were several phases of this period:

• In a late European Mesolithic prelude to the Neolithic it appears that Near Eastern peoples from areas which already had farming, and who also had sea-faring technology, had a transient presence in Greece, for example at Franchthi Cave.^[84][85]
• There is strong consensus that agricultural technology and the major breeds of animals and plants which are farmed entered Europe from somewhere in the area of the Fertile Crescent and specifically the Levant region from the Sinai to Southern Anatolia^[86][87] (Less certainly, this agricultural revolution is sometimes argued to have in turn been partly triggered by movements of people and technology coming across the Sinai from Africa.)
• A later stage of the Neolithic, the so-called Pottery Neolithic, saw an introduction of pottery into the Levant, Balkans and Southern Italy (it had been present in the area of modern Sudan for some time before it is found in the Eastern Mediterranean, but it is thought to have developed independently) and this may have also been a period of cultural transfer from the Levant into the Balkans.

An important issue regarding the genetic impact of neolithic technologies in Europe is the manner by which they were transferred into Europe. Primarily, this question pertains to whether farming was introduced by a significant migratory movement of farmers from the Near East (Cavalli-Sforza's biological demic diffusion model), or a mere "cultural diffusion", or some combination of the two. Secondarily, population geneticists have tried to clarify whether any detectable genetic signatures of Near Eastern origin correspond to the expansion routes postulated by the archaeological evidence.^[88]

Martin Richards estimated that 11% of European mtDNA is due to immigration in this period. Gene flow from SE to NW Europe seems to have continued in the Neolithic, the percentage significantly declining towards the British Isles. Classical genetics also suggested that the largest admixture to the European Paleolithic/Mesolithic stock was due to the Neolithic revolution of the 7th to 5th millennia BC.^[89] Three main mtDNA gene groups have been identified as contributing Neolithic entrants into Europe: J, T1 and U3 (in that order of importance). With others they amount up to around 20% of the gene pool.^[90]

In 2000, Semino's study on Y DNA revealed the presence of haplotypes belonging to the large clade E1b1b1 (E-M35). These were predominantly found in the southern Balkans, southern Italy and parts of Iberia. Semino connected this pattern, along with J haplogroup subclades, to be the Y-DNA component of Cavalli-Sforza's Neolithic demic-diffusion of farmers from the nEar East.^[91] Rosser et al. rather saw it as a (direct) 'North African component' in European genealogy, although they did not propose a timing and mechanism for to account for it ^[92] More recently, Underhill and Kivisild (2007) also described E1b1b as representing a late-Pleistocene migration from Africa to Europe over the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt, evidence for which does not show up in mitochondrial DNA.^[93]

The distribution of the V-13 sub-lineage of haplogroup E1b1b in Europe

Concerning timing the distribution and diversity of V13 however, Battaglia et al. (2008) proposed an earlier movement whereby the E-M78* lineage ancestral to all modern E-V13 men moved rapidly out of a Southern Egyptian homeland, and arrived in Europe with only Mesolithic technologies. They then suggest that the E-V13 sub-clade of E-M78 only expanded subsequently as native Balkan 'foragers-come-farmers' adopted Neolithic technologies from the Near East. They propose that the first major dispersal of E-V13 from the Balkans may have been in the direction of the Adriatic Sea with the Neolithic Impressed Ware culture often referred to as Impressa or Cardial. Peričic et al. (2005), rather propose that the main route of E-V13 spread was along the Vardar-Morava-Danube river 'highway' system.

In contrast to Battaglia, Cruciani et al. (2007) suggest (i) a different point of V-13 origin, and (ii) a later dispersal time. Cruciani argues that V-13 arose in western Asia, where it is found in low but significant frequencies, from whence it entered the Balkans sometime after 11 kYa. It later experienced a rapid dispersal which he dated to c. 5300 years ago in Europe, coinciding with the Balkan Bronze Age. Like Peričic et al. they consider that "the dispersion of the E-V13 and J-M12 haplogroups seems to have mainly followed the river waterways connecting the southern Balkans to north-central Europe".

Most likely, the demographic history of V13 is complex, as later population movements further amplified it's frequency in the Europe.^[94] (See below.)

After an initial focus upon E1b1b as a Neolithic marker, a more recent study in January 2010, looked especially at Y haplogroup R1b1b, which is much more common in Western Europe. Mark Jobling, who led the research, said: "We focused on the commonest Y-chromosome lineage in Europe, carried by about 110 million men, it follows a gradient from south-east to north-west, reaching almost 100% frequency in Ireland. We looked at how the lineage is distributed, how diverse it is in different parts of Europe, and how old it is." The results suggested that the lineage R1b1b2 (R-M269), like E1b1b or J lineages, spread together with farming from the Near East. Dr Patricia Balaresque, first author of the study, added: "In total, this means that more than 80% of European Y chromosomes descend from incoming farmers. In contrast, most maternal genetic lineages seem to descend from hunter-gatherers. To us, this suggests a reproductive advantage for farming males over indigenous hunter-gatherer males during the switch from hunting and gathering, to farming".^{[95][96][97][98]}

A more recent article concerning R1b however made the counter claim that "the data are still controversial and the analyses so far performed are prone to a number of biases" and presented some evidence that R1b was also part of "an earlier, pre-Neolithic dispersal of haplogroups from a common ancestral gene pool".^[99]

Genetic History of Europe

Calatorie genetica  at

http://dacia.org/forum.php?homeinclude=topicdetails&forum_id=5&category_id=13&post_id=158(Romanian only)

 The genetic history of Europe can be inferred from the patterns of genetic diversity across continents and time. The primary data to develop historical scenarios coming from sequences of mitochondrial, Y-chromosome and autosomal DNA from modern populations and if available from ancient DNA. European populations have a complicated demographic and genetic history, including many successive periods of population growth.

The diversion of Y chromosome haplogroup Haplogroup F and its descendants.

Genetic studies

One of the first scholars to perform genetic studies was Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza. He used classical genetic markers to analyse DNA by proxy. This method studies differences in the frequencies of particular allelic traits, namely polymorphisms from proteins found within human blood (such as the ABO blood groups, Rhesus blood antigens, HLA loci, immunoglobulins, G-6-P-D isoenzymes, amongst others). Subsequently his team calculated genetic distance between populations, based on the principle that two populations that share similar frequencies of a trait are more closely related than populations that have more divergent frequencies of the trait. From this, he constructed phylogenetic trees which showed genetic distances diagrammatically. His team also performed principal component analyses, which is good at analysing multivariate data with minimal loss of information. The information that is lost can be partly restored by generating a second principal component, and so on.^[1] In turn, the information from each individual principal component (PC) can be presented graphically in synthetic maps. These maps show peaks and troughs, which represent populations whose gene frequencies take extreme values compared to others in the studied area.^[2]

Peaks and troughs usually, but not necessarily, connected by smooth gradients, called clines. Genetic clines can be generated in several ways: including adaptation to environment (natural selection), continuous gene flow between two initially different populations, or a demographic expansion into a scarcely populated environment with little initial admixture with pre-existing populations.^[3] Cavalli-Sforza connected these gradients with postulated pre-historic population movements based on known archaeological and linguistic theories. However, given that the time depths of such patterns are not known, ?associating them with particular demographic events is usually speculative?.^[4]

Studies using direct DNA analysis are now abundant, and may utilize mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), the non-recombining portion of the Y chromosome (NRY) or autosomal DNA. MtDNA and NRY DNA share some similar features which have made them particularly useful in genetic anthropology. These properties include the direct, unaltered inheritance of mtDNA and NRY DNA from mother to offspring, and father to son, respectively, without the 'scrambling' effects of genetic recombination. We also presume that these genetic loci are not affected by natural selection, and that the major process responsible for changes in base pairs has been mutation (which can be calculated).^[5]

The smaller effective population size of the NRY and mtDNA enhances the consequences of drift and founder effect relative to the autosomes, making NRY and mtDNA variation a potentially sensitive index of population composition.^[4][6][7] However, these biologically plausible assumptions are nevertheless not concrete. For example, Rosser suggests that climatic conditions may affect the fertility of certain lineages.^[4]

Even more problematic, however, is the underlying mutation rate used by the geneticists. They often use different mutation rates, and therefore studies frequently arrive at vastly different conclusions.^[4] Moroever, NRY and mtDNA may be so susceptible to drift that some ancient patterns may have become obscured over time. Another implicit assumption is that population genealogies are approximated by allele genealogies. Barbujani points out that this only holds if population groups develop from a genetically monomorphic set of founders. However, Barbujani argues that there is no reason to believe that Europe was colonized by monomorphic populations. This would result in an overestimation of haplogroup age, thus falsely extending the demographic history of Europe into the Late Paleolithic rather than the Neolithic era.^[8] (See also Genetic drift, Founder effect, Population bottleneck.) Greater certainty about chronology may be obtained from studies of ancient DNA (see below), but so far these have been comparatively few.

Whereas Y-DNA and mtDNA haplogroups represent but a small component of a person?s DNA pool, autosomal DNA has the advantage of containing hundreds and thousands of examinable genetic loci, thus giving a more complete picture of genetic composition. However, descent relationships can only to be determined on a statistical basis because autosomal DNA undergoes recombination. A single chromosome can record multiple histories; a separate history for each gene. Autosomal studies are much more reliable for showing the relationships between existing populations but do not offer the possibilities for unraveling their histories in the same way as mtDNA and NRY DNA studies promise, despite their many complications.

Genetic studies operate on numerous assumptions and suffer from usual methodological limitations such as selection bias and confounding. Furthermore, no matter how accurate the methodology, conclusions derived from such studies are ultimately compiled on the basis of how the author envisages their data fits with established archaeological or linguistic theories.

Relation between Europeans and other populations

According to Cavalli-Sforza's work, all non-African populations are more closely related to each other than to Africans; supporting the hypothesis that all non-Africans descend from a single old-African population. The genetic distance from Africa to Europe (16.6) was found to be shorter than the genetic distance from Africa to East Asia (20.6), and much shorter than that from Africa to Australia (24.7). He explains:

...both Africans and Asians contributed to the settlement of Europe, which began about 40,000 years ago. It seems very reasonable to assume that both continents nearest to Europe contributed to its settlement, even if perhaps at different times and maybe repeatedly. It is reassuring that the analysis of other markers also consistently gives the same results in this case. Moreover, a specific evolutionary model tested, i.e., that Europe is formed by contributions from Asia and Africa, fits the distance matrix perfectly (6). In this simplified model, the migrations postulated to have populated Europe are estimated to have occurred at an early date (30,000 years ago), but it is impossible to distinguish, on the basis of these data, this model from that of several migrations at different times. The overall contributions from Asia and Africa were estimated to be around two-thirds and one-third, respectively".

?^[9][10][11]

This particular model used an Out of Africa migration 100,000 years ago which separated Africans from non-Africans followed by a single admixture event 30,000 years ago leading to the formulation of the European population. The admixture event consisted of a source population that was 35% African and 65% East Asian. However the study notes that a more realistic scenario would include several admixture events occurring over a sustained period. In particular they cite the spread of farming from a source population in West Asia 5000?9000 years ago may have played a role in the genetic relatedness of Africans and Europeans since West Asia is sandwiched in between Africa and Central Asia. The model assumed an out of Africa migration 100kya and a single admixture event 30kya. However, most contemporary studies have more recent dates that place the out of Africa migration 50-70kya. The study also involved a direct comparison between Sub-Saharan Africans (Central Africans and Senegalese) and Europeans. North Africans population were omitted from the study as they are known to have both Eurasian and Sub-Saharan admixture. These considerations might help explain the apparent short genetic distance between Europeans and Africans^[9][10][11]

A later study by Bauchet, which utilised ~ 10 thousand autosomal DNA SNPs arrived at similar results. Principal component analysis clearly identified four widely dispersed groupings corresponding to Africa, Europe, Central Asia and South Asia. PC1 separated Africans from the other populations, PC2 divided Asians from Europeans and Africans, whilst PC3 split Central Asians apart from South Asians.^[12]

The Hungarian Point of View

 SITES:  http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.iatp.md/dava/Sirius_11/Mitoc_a_.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.iatp.md/dava/Sirius_11/sirius_11.html&usg=__lYyZ-vGEOjfBnkCfOSOfOA_1BlY=&h=185&w=180&sz=23&hl=en&start=1&um=1&tbnid=VrGDnf4qNr4cuM:&tbnh=102&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3Fq%3DAmuleta%2Bde%2Bla%2BBranzeni%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN%26um%3D1%26ie%3DUTF-8 http://www.iatp.md/dava/Dava6/dava6.html http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WH6-4TMYK1V-1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=0890b233df303198c3f36ffd860d7d2c http://old.ournet.md/~portac/ http://dergiler.ankara.edu.tr/dergiler/14/719/9098.pdf http://civa.uv.ro/Sandu7.1.pdf http://arheologie.ulbsibiu.ro/publicatii/ats/ats3/acta%203a.pdf http://www.donsmaps.com/dolni.html http://www.donsmaps.com/lepenski.html http://www.iatp.md/dava/Vartic/Vartic-eng/vartic-eng.html http://www.scribd.com/doc/9516921/Dacologie-Tartaria http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.comp-archaeology.org/AurochsDomesticationCattleHeide1973CAWEB.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.comp-archaeology.org/AgricultureOrigins.htm&usg=__8KkvKd9GXtF6UPuIL0cltQo_YNs=&h=491&w=321&sz=151&hl=en&start=151&um=1&tbnid=rnOF1_ukd7amtM:&tbnh=130&tbnw=85&prev=/images%3Fq%3DEuropean%2BPrehistory%26ndsp%3D20%26hl%3Den%26rlz%3D1T4RNTN_enUS316US318%26sa%3DN%26start%3D140%26um%3D1 http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=1118

 http://www.mediafax.ro/stiinta-sanatate/zid-de-piatra-vechi-de-23-000-de-ani-descoperit-in-grecia-5767433/

Paleontologii greci au descoperit cel  mai vechi zid de piatră din tara lor, datând din urmă cu peste 23.000 de ani, care barează intrarea într-o pesteră din regiunea Tesalia.

 Acest vestigiu, considerat unul dintre cele mai vechi de acest tip din lume, ;i-a relevat vârsta cu ajutorul unei analize de datare prinluminiscentă optică, potrivit unui comunicat emis de Ministerul Culturii elen. "Vârsta lui corespunde cu cea mai rece perioadă din ultima eră glaciară, ceea ce indică faptul că a fost construit de către oamenii care locuiau în paleolitic în această pe;teră, pentru a se proteja de frig", se afirmă în acela;i comunicat.

Zidul bloca două treimi din intrarea în pe;teră, amplasată în apropiere de Kalambaka, o localitate din zona complexului monahal Meteora din centrul Greciei, devenit un obiectiv turistic. Situl arheologic este cercetat de peste 25 de ani de către paleontologii greci.

rehistory of Southeastern Europe

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For the history of Earth before the occupation by the genus homo, including the period of early hominins, see Geology of Europe and Human evolution.

The prehistory of Southeastern Europe , defined roughly as the territory of the wider Balkans peninsula (including the territories of the modern countries of Albania, Croatia, Bosnia, Romania, Bulgaria, and Moldova) covers the period from the Upper Paleolithic, beginning with the presence of Homo sapiens in the area some 44,000 years ago, until the appearance of the first written records in Classical Antiquity, in Greece as early as the 8th century BC.

Human prehistory in Southeastern Europe is conventionally divided into smaller periods, such as Upper Paleolithic, Holocene Mesolithic/Epipaleolithic, Neolithic Revolution, expansion of Proto-Indo-Europeans, and Protohistory. The changes between these are gradual. For example, depending on interpretation, protohistory might or might not include Bronze Age Greece (2800-1200 BC),^[1] Minoan, Mycenaean, Thracian, Lemnian, and Venetic cultures. By one interpretation of the historiography criterion, the Southeastern Europe enters protohistory only with Homer (See also Historicity of the Iliad, and Geography of the Odyssey). At any rate, the period ends before Herodotus in 5th century BC.^[2]

Contents [hide] 1 Palaeolithic 1.1 Balkan Transition to the Upper Palaeolithic 1.2 Upper Paleolithic 2 Mesolithic 3 Neolithic 4 Bronze Age 5 Iron Age 6 See also 7 References 8 External links

[edit] Palaeolithic

[edit] Balkan Transition to the Upper Palaeolithic

There is evidence of human presence in the Balkans from the Middle Paleolithic onwards, but the number of sites is limited. According to Douglass W. Bailey^[3]:

“

it is important to recognize that the Balkan Upper Palaeolithic was a long period containing little significant internal change. Thus, the Balkans transition was not as dramatic as in other European regions. Crucial changes that define the earliest emergence of Homo sapiens sapiens are presented at Bacho Kiro at 44,000 BCE. The Bulgarian key Palaeolithic caves named Bacho Kiro and Temnata Dupka with early Upper Palaeolithic material correlate that the transition was gradual.

”

The Palaeolithic period, literally the “Old Stone Age”, is an ancient cultural level of human development characterized by the use of unpolished chipped stone tools. The transition from Middle to Upper Palaeolithic is directly related to the development of behavioural modernity by homonids around 40,000 years BP. To denote the great significance and degree of change, this dramatic shift from Middle to Upper Palaeolithic is sometimes called the Upper Palaeolithic Revolution.

In the late Pleistocene, various components of the transition–material culture and environmental features (climate, flora, and fauna)indicate continual change, differing from contemporary points in other parts of Europe. The aforementioned aspects leave some doubt that the term Upper Palaeolithic Revolution is appropriate to the Balkans.

In general, continual evolutionary changes are the first crucial characteristic of the transition to the Upper Palaeolithic in the Balkans. The notion of the Upper Palaeolithic Revolution that has been developed for core European regions is not applicable to the Balkans. What is the reason? This particularly significant moment and its origins are defined and enlightened by other characteristics of the transition to upper Old Stone Age. The environment, climate, flora and fauna corroborate the implications.

During the last interglacial period and the most recent glaciation of the Pleistocene (from 131,000 till 12,000 BP), Europe was very different from the Balkans. The glaciations did not affect southeastern Europe to the extent that they did in the northern and central regions. The evidence of forest and steppe indicate the influence was not so drastic; some species of flora and fauna survived only in the Balkans. The Balkans today still abound in species endemic only to this part of Europe.

The notion of gradual transition (or evolution) best defines Balkan Europe from about 50,000 BP. In this sense, the material culture and natural environment of the Balkans of the late Pleistocene and the early Holocene were distinct from other parts of Europe. Douglass W. Bailey writes in Balkan Prehistory: Exclusion, Incorporation and Identity: “Less dramatic changes to climate, flora and fauna resulted in less dramatic adaptive, or reactive, developments in material culture.”

Thus, in speaking about southeastern Europe, many classic conceptions and systematizations of human development during the Palaeolithic (and then by implication the Mesolithic) should not be considered correct in all cases. In this regard, the absence of Upper Palaeolithic cave art in the Balkans does not seem to be surprising. Civilisations develop new and distinctive characteristics as they respond to new challenges in their environment.

[edit] Upper Paleolithic

In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (Peştera cu Oase), near Anina, Romania.^[4] Nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina), the remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old.

As Europe’s oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they are likely to represent the first such people to have entered the continent.^[5] According to some researchers, the particular interest of the discovery resides in the fact that it presents a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features,^[6] indicating considerable Neanderthal/modern human admixture,^[7] which in turn suggests that, upon their arrival in Europe, modern humans met and interbred with Neanderthals. Recent reanalysis of some of these fossils has challenged the view that these remains represent evidence of interbreeding.^[8] A second expedition by Erik Trinkaus and Ricardo Rodrigo, discovered further fragments (for example, a skull dated ~36,000, nicknamed "Vasile").

Two human fossil remains found in the Muierii (Peştera Muierilor) and the Cioclovina caves in Romania have been radiocarbon dated using the technique of the accelerator mass spectrometry to the age of ~ 30,000 years BP. These are the most ancient dated human fossil remains from Europe, possibly belonging to the upper Paleolithic, the Aurignacian period (see Human fossil bones from the Muierii Cave and the Cioclovina Cave, Romania).

The first skull, scapula and tibia remains were found in 1952 in Baia de Fier, in the Muierii Cave, Gorj county in the province Oltenia, by Constantin Nicolaescu-Plopşor.

In 1941 another skull was found at the Cioclovina Cave near Commune Bosorod, Hunedoara county, in Transylvania. The anthropologist, Francisc Rainer, and the geologist, Ioan Simionescu, published a study of this skull.

The physical analysis of these fossils was begun in the summer of the year 2000 by Emilian Alexandrescu, archaeologist at the Institute of Archaeology 'Vasile Parvan' in Bucharest, and Agata Olariu, physicist at the Institute of Physics and Nuclear Engineering-Horia Hulubei, Bucharest, where samples were taken. One sample of bone was taken from the skull from Cioclovina; samples were also taken from the scapula and tibia remains from Muierii Cave. The work continued at the University of Lund, AMS group, by Göran Skog, Kristina Stenström and Ragnar Hellborg. The samples of bones were dated by radiocarbon method applied at the AMS system of the Lund University and the results are shown in the analysis bulletin [2] issued on the date 14 December 2001.

The human fossil remains from Muierii Cave, Baia de Fier, have been dated to 30,150 ± 800 years BP, and the skull from the Cioclovina Cave has been dated to 29,000 ± 700 years BP.^[9][10][11]

[edit] Mesolithic

The Mesolithic period began at the end of the Pleistocene epoch 10th millennium BC and ended with the Neolithic introduction of farming, the date of which varied in each geographical region. According to Douglass W. Bailey^[12]:

“

It is equally important to recognize that the Balkan upper Palaeolithic was a long period containing little significant internal change. The Mesolithic may not have existed in the Balkans for the same reasons that cave art and mobiliary art never appeared: the changes in climate and flora and fauna were gradual and not drastic. (…) Furthermore, one of the reasons that we do not distinguish separate industries in the Balkans as Mesolithic is because the lithic industries of the early Holocene were very firmly of a gradually developing late Palaeolithic tradition

”

The Mesolithic is the transitional period between the Upper Palaeolithic hunter-gathering existence and the development of farming and pottery production during the Postglacial Neolithic. The duration of the classical Palaeolithic, which lasted until about 10,000 years ago, is applicable to the Balkans. It ended with the Mesolithic (duration is 2–4 millennia) or, where an early Neolithisation was peculiar to, with the Epipalaeolithic.

Regions with limited glacial impact (e.g. the Balkans), the term Epipalaeolithic is more preferable. Regions that experienced less environmental effects during the last ice age have a much less apparent, straightforward, and occasionally marked by an absence of sites from the Mesolithic era. See the above Douglass W. Bailey quote.

There is lithic evidence in Serbia, southwestern Romania, and Montenegro. At Ostrovul Banului, the Cuina Turcului rock shelter in the Danube Gorges and in the nearby caves of Climente people make relatively advanced bone and lithic tools (i.e. end-scrapers, blade lets, and flakes).

The single site representing materials related to Mesolithic in Bulgaria is Pobiti Kamini. There is no another lithic evidence on the period. There is a 4,000-gap between the latest Upper Palaeolithic material (13,600 BP at Temnta Dupka) and the earliest Neolithic evidence presented at Gulubnik (the beginning of the seventh millennium BCE).

At Odmut in Montenegro there is evidence for human activity in the period. The research of the period was supplemented with Greek Mesolithic well represented by sites such as Frachthi Cave. The other sites are Theopetra Cave and Sesklo in Thessaly that represent the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic as well as the early Neolithic period. Yet southern and coastal sites Greece, which contained materials from the Mesolithic are less known.

Activities began to be concentrated around individual sites where people displayed personal and group identities using various decorations: wearing ornaments and painting their bodies with ochre and hematite. As regards the point of identity D. Bailey writes, “Flint-cutting tools as well as time and effort needed to produce such tools testify the expressions of identity and more flexible combinations of materials, which began to be used in the late Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic.”

The aforementioned allows us to speculate whether or not there was a period which could be described as Mesolithicin [[southeastern Europe, rather than an extended Upper Palaeolithic. On the other hand, lack of research in a number of regions, and the fact that many of the sites were close to the shore (it is evident that the current sea level is 100 m higher, and a number of sites were covered by water) means that Mesolithic Balkans could be referred to as Epipalaeolithic)Balkans which would better describe its gradual continuity and poorly-defined development.

[edit] Neolithic

See also: Neolithic Europe

Europe in ca. 4500-4000 BC

Europe in ca. 4000-3500 BC

The Balkans were the site of major Neolithic cultures, including Vincha, Varna, Karanovo, Hamangia.

The Vinča culture was an early culture of the Balkans (between the 6th and the 3rd millennium BC), stretching around the course of theDanube in Serbia, Croatia, Romania, Bulgaria, Montenegro [Albania] the Republic of Macedonia, although traces of it can be found all around the Balkans, parts of Central Europe and Asia Minor.

"Kurganization" of the eastern Balkans (and the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture adjacent to the north) during the Eneolithic is associated with a first expansion of Proto-Indo-Europeans.

• Starčevo-Criş culture
• Dudeşti culture
• Cucuteni-Trypillian culture
• Hamangia culture
• Vinča culture
• Varna culture
• Tărtăria tablets
• Indo-Europeans

[edit] Bronze Age

Further information: Bronze Age Europe

Cucuteni-Tripolye culture

The Bronze Age in the Balkans is divided as follows (Boardman p. 166)

• Early Bronze Age: 20th to 16th centuries BC
• Middle Bronze Age: 16th to 14th centuries BC
• Late Bronze Age: 14th to 13th centuries BC

The Bronze Age in the Central and Eastern Balkans begins late, around 1800 BC. The transition to the Iron Age gradually sets in over the 13th century BC.

The "East Balkan Complex" (Karanovo VII, Ezero culture) covers all of Thrace. The Bronze Age cultures of the Central and Western Balkans are less clearly delineated and stretch to Pannonia, the Carpathians and into Hungary.

See also Cucuteni-Trypillian culture. From this mix of native neolithic populations and the invading Indo-Europeans, a new ethnos emerged—the Thracians. See also Thraco-Cimmerian.

[edit] Iron Age

Thracian tribes before the Roman period.

Distribution of "Thraco-Cimmerian" finds

After the period that followed the arrival of the Dorians , known as the Greek Dark Ages or Submycenaean Period, the classical Greek culture began to develop in the southern Balkan peninsula, the Aegean islands and the western Asia Minor Greek colonies starting around the 9–8th century (the Geometric Period) and peaking with the 5th century BC Athens democracy.

The Greeks were the first to establish a system of trade routes in the Balkans and, in order to facilitate trade with the natives between 700 BC and 300 BC, they founded several colonies on the Black Sea (Pontus Euxinus) coast, Asia Minor, Dalmatia, Southern Italy (Magna Graecia) etc.

The other peoples of the Balkans organized themselves in large tribal unions such as the Thracian Odrysian kingdom in the Eastern Balkans in the 5th century BC, and the Illyrian kingdom in the Western Balkans from the early 4th century.

Other tribal unions existed in Dacia at least as early as the beginning of the 2nd century BC under King Oroles. The Illyrian tribes were situated in the area corresponding to today's former Yugoslavia and Albania. The name Illyrii was originally used to refer to a people occupying an area centred on Lake Skadar, situated between Albania and Montenegro (= Illyrians proper). The term Illyria was subsequently used by the Greeks and Romans as a generic name to refer to different peoples within a well defined but much greater area.^[13]

Hellenistic culture spread throughout the Macedonian Empire created by Alexander the Great from the later 4th century BC. By the end of the 4th century BC Greek language and culture were dominant not only in the Balkans but also around the whole Eastern Mediterranean.

By the sixth century BC the first written sources dealing with the territory north of the Danube appear in Greek sources. By this time the Getae (and later the Daci) had branched out from the Thracian-speaking populations

[edit] See also

• History of Eurasia
• History of Europe
• Prehistory
• Prehistoric Europe
• Prehistoric Croatia
• Prehistoric Serbia
• Timeline of glaciation
• Stone Age
• Paleolithic Europe
• Mesolithic Europe
• Neolithic Europe
• Bronze Age Europe
• Iron Age Europe
• Old European culture
• Paleo-Balkans languages
• Proto-Indo-Europeans
• Aegean civilization
• Thracian language
• Thracia
• Dacia
• Illyria

[edit] References

Inline

1. ^ Classical World
2. ^ e.g. Thrace in book V.
3. ^ Balkan prehistory Page 15 By Douglass W. Bailey ISBN 0-415-21597-8
4. ^ Trinkaus, E., Milota, Ş., Rodrigo, R., Gherase, M., Moldovan, O. (2003), Early Modern Human Cranial remains from the Peştera cu Oase, Romania in Journal of Human Evolution, 45, pp. 245 –253, [1]
5. ^ João Zilhão, (2006), Neanderthals and Moderns Mixed and It Matters, in Evolutionary Anthropology, 15:183–195, p.185
6. ^ Trinkaus, E., Moldovan, O., Milota, Ş., Bîlgăr, A., Sarcina, L., Athreya, S., Bailey, S.E., Rodrigo, R., Gherase, M., Hilgham, T., Bronk Ramsey, C., & Van Der Plicht, J. ( 2003), An early modern human from Peştera cu Oase, Romania. Proceedings of the National Acadademy of Science U.S.A., 100(20), pp. 11231–11236
7. ^ Andrei Soficaru, Adrian Dobo and Erik Trinkaus (2006), Early modern humans from the Peştera Muierii, Baia de Fier, Romania, Proceedings of the National Acadademy of Science U.S.A., 103(46), pp. 17196-17201
8. ^ Harvati K, Gunz P, Grigorescu D. Cioclovina (Romania): affinities of an early modern European. J Hum Evol. 2007 Dec;53(6):732-46
9. ^ Olariu A., Alexandrescu E., Skog G., Hellborg R., Stenström K., Faarinen M. and Persson P, Dating of two Paleolithic human fossil bones from Romania by accelerator mass spectrometry, NIPNE Scientific Reports 2001-202, pag. 82
10. ^ Olariu A., Skog G., Hellborg R., Stenström K., Faarinen M. and Persson P. and Alexandrescu E., 2003, Dating of two Paleolithic human fossil bones from Romania by accelerator mass spectrometry, http://arXiv.org/abs/physics/0309110
11. ^ Olariu A., Stenström K. and Hellborg R. (Eds), 2005, Proceedings of International conference on Applications of High Precision Atomic & Nuclear Methods, 2–6 September 2002, Neptun, Romania, Publishing House of Romanian Academy, Bucharest, ISBN 973-27-1181-7, Dating of two Paleolithic human fossil bones from Romania by accelerator mass spectrometry, 235-239
12. ^ Balkan prehistory Page 36 By Douglass W. Bailey ISBN 0-415-21597-8
13. ^ The Illyrians. John Wilkes

General

• John Boardman, The Cambridge Ancient History, Part I: The Prehistory of the Balkans to 1000 BC, Cambridge University Press (1923), ISBN 0-521-22496-9.
• Douglass W. Bailey, Balkan prehistory, ISBN 0-415-21597-8
• Alexandru Păunescu, Evoluţia istorică pe teritoriul României din paleolitic până la inceputul Neoliticului, SCIVA, 31, 1980, 4, p. 519-545.
• Paul Lachlan MacKendrick, The Dacian Stones Speak, The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1974, ISBN 0-8078-4939-1

[edit] External links

• Periodization of Balkan Prehistory ~ 6200 - 1100 BC
• South East Europe pre-history summary to 700BC
• Balkan Prehistory: Exclusion, Incorporation and Identity by Douglass W. Bailey
• The Aegeo-Balkan Prehistory Project
• (Romanian) Ion din Anina, primul om din Europa on Jurnalul.ro
• (English) Human fossils set European record on BBC.co.uk
• (Romanian) Enciclopedia României

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Categories: Prehistory of Southeastern Europe

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Peștera Scărișoara sau Ghețarul de la Scărișoara adăpostește cel mai mare ghețar subteran din România. De aici îi vine și numele de „ghețar” iar „Scărișoara” provine de la comuna Scărișoara situată 16 km mai jos, de care aparținea administrativ în vremea când a fost numită astfel. Acum aparține comunei Gârda de Sus, județul Alba.

 https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pe%C8%99tera_Sc%C4%83ri%C8%99oara